Dna methylation biomarkers for lung cancer

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to the identification of novel DNA biomarkers and the use of the aberrant methylation patterns of the biomarkers to diagnose a disease or a condition (e.g., a cancer) associated therewith. In particular, the present invention relates to the use of the novel DNA biomarkers to diagnose lung cancers, e.g., squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/231,337, filed Aug. 29, 2008, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/969,157, filed Aug. 30, 2007, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety, including drawings.

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

The present invention was made with government support under NIH Grant No. RO1 grant CA104967 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the present invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present inventions relates to diagnosing a disease (e.g., tumor) through measuring methylation levels or patterns of nucleotide biomarkers in samples.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

5-methylcytosine, present at 70-80% of all CpG dinucleotides, is the only normal modified base found in mammalian DNA. It has been known for more than two decades that the level of 5-methylcytosine bases is significantly reduced in tumor tissues relative to normal tissues (Feinberg and Vogelstein 1983; Gama-Sosa, Slagel et al. 1983; Riggs and Jones 1983). Later it was observed that gene-specific hypermethylation events at CpG-rich, so-called CpG-island sequences occur in cancer tissues (Baylin, Hoppener et al. 1986). In the 1990s researchers reported hypermethylation of CpG islands of several known and putative tumor suppressor genes and other genes involved in important genome defense pathways such as DNA repair (Gonzalez-Zulueta, Bender et al. 1995; Herman, Merlo et al. 1995; Merlo, Herman et al. 1995; Kane, Loda et al. 1997; Costello and Plass 2001; Esteller, Corn et al. 2001; Jones and Baylin 2007). Today, there are many reports that have documented methylation of CpG islands associated with a large number of different genes, including almost every type of human cancer. In lung cancer, several specific CpG islands are methylated including those associated with CDKN2A, RASSF1A, RARbeta, MGMT, GSTP1, CDH13, APC, DAPK, TIMP3, and several others (Dammann, Li et al. 2000; Zochbauer-Muller, Fong et al. 2001; Yanagawa, Tamura et al. 2003; Topaloglu, Hogue et al. 2004; Dammann, Strunnikova et al. 2005). The methylation frequency (i.e. the percentage of tumors analyzed that carry methylated alleles) in the published studies differs widely depending on the histological type of tumor, the study population, and/or the methodology used to assess methylation.

As aberrant methylation (e.g., hypermethylation) of CpG islands is a phenomenon commonly observed during the development and progression of human tumors, detection of methylated CpG islands in easily accessible biological materials or samples such as serum, urine or sputum has the potential to be useful for the early diagnosis of cancer including lung cancer (Laird 2003; Belinsky 2004; Ushijima 2005). Therefore, there is a need to identify CpG islands containing biomarkers that would have specificity in discriminating disease (e.g., tumor) from normal tissue and are aberrantly methylated during the onset or developing or remission stage of the disease.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

One aspect of the present invention relates to a method of diagnosing a condition associated with an aberrant methylation of DNA in a sample from a subject by measuring the methylation level of one or more DNA biomarkers from a test sample in comparison to that of a normal or standard sample, wherein the fold difference between the methylation level of the test sample in relation to that of the normal/standard sample indicate the likelihood of the test sample having the condition.

The aberrant methylation is referred as hypermethylation and/or hypomethylation (e.g., demethylation). In a preferred embodiment, the abnormal methylation is hypermethylation. In another preferred embodiment, the abnormal methylation is hypomethylation.

The methylation of DNA often occurs at genome regions known as CpG islands. The CpG islands are susceptible to aberrant methylation (e.g., hypermethylation) in stage- and tissue-specific manner during the development of a condition or disease (e.g., cancer). Thus the measurement of the level of methylation indicates the likelihood or the stage (e.g., onset, development, or remission stage) of the condition.

The methylation of DNA can be detected via methods known in the art. In a preferred embodiment, the level can be measured via a methylated-CpG island recovery assay (MIRA), combined bisulfite-restriction analysis (COBRA) or methylation-specific PCR (MSP). In another preferred embodiment, the methylation levels of a plurality DNA can be measured through MIRA-assisted DNA array.

The DNA biomarkers are fragments of genome DNA which contain a CpG island or CpG islands, or alternatively, are susceptible to aberrant methylation. Examples of the DNA markers associated with a condition are disclosed in Tables 2 and 4. Specifically, examples of the DNA markers include BARHL2, EVX2, IRX2, MEIS1, MSX1, NR2E1, OC2, PAX6, TFAP2A, ZNF577, CHAD, DLX4, GRIK2, KNCG3, NR2E1, OSR1, OTX1, OTX2, PROX1, RUNX1, and VAX1.

The conditions or diseases associated with aberrant methylation (e.g., hypermethylation) include hematological disorders and cancers (e.g., breast cancer, lung cancer, liver cancer, ovarian cancer, and other tumors, carcinomas, and sarcomas). In a preferred embodiment, the condition is a lung cancer which includes squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma.

In one embodiment, the method of present invention is directed to a method of diagnosing a lung cancer (e.g., squamous cell carcinoma) in a test subject or a test sample through determining the methylation level of DNA markers from the test subject or test sample in relative to the level of the DNA markers from a normal subject or sample, wherein the DNA markers are one or more genes listed in Table 2, preferably, selected from the group consisting of BARHL2, EVX2, IRX2, MEIS1, MSX1, NR2E1, OC2, OSR1, OTX1, PAX6, TFAP2A, and ZNF577.

In another embodiment, the method of present invention is directed to a method of diagnosing a lung cancer (e.g., adenocarcinoma) in a test subject or a test sample through determining the methylation level of DNA markers from the test subject or test sample in relative to the level of the DNA markers from a normal subject or sample, wherein the DNA markers are one or more genes listed in Table 4, preferably, selected from the group consisting of CHAD, DLX4, GRIK2, KNCG3, NR2E1, OSR1, OTX1, OTX2, PROX1, RUNX1, and VAX1.

Another aspect of the present invention relates to a method of diagnosing a condition associated with an aberrant methylation of DNA in a sample from a subject by 1) obtaining test genome DNA from a test sample and control genome DNA from a control sample; 2) obtaining a first methylated region from the test genome DNA and a second methylated region from the control genome DNA, 3) hybridizing the first region and the second region to a DNA microarray wherein the microarray comprising at least one DNA biomarker associated with a disease or a condition, wherein the fold difference between the first region of test DNA hybridizing to the DNA biomarker relative to the second region hybridizing to the DNA biomarker indicates that the test sample has the disease or condition.

Another aspect of the present invention relates of a method of identifying one or more DNA biomarker susceptible to aberrant methylation by subjecting DNA fragments from a disease sample of a known condition or disease and a standard/normal/control sample (without the condition) to an MIRA-assisted DNA array wherein the array comprising a plurality of DNA probes, and analyzing the levels of the DNA fragments, specially the levels of methylated DNA fragments, which bind to a corresponding probe on the array, and detecting the fold difference between the levels of the DNA fragments from the disease sample and the normal sample, wherein the corresponding probe is a DNA biomarker if the fold difference is no less than 2.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Altered DNA methylation patterns in human cancers. This scheme illustrates a hypothetical gene. In normal cells, the gene is expressed and the CpG island near its 5′ end is unmethylated. Sequences in the coding region of genes are often methylated. Cancer-associated DNA methylation within the promoter residing within the CpG island leads to gene silencing. Global DNA hypomethylation, which most often affects repetitive sequences including transposable elements, may also lead to the demethylation of some exonic or intronic CpG dinucleotides.

FIG. 2. Outline of the methylated CpG island recovery assay (MIRA). After selective purification of the methylated DNA fraction, gene-specific PCR primers are used to assess the methylation status of specific sequences. In the experiment shown the RASSF1A promoter scores as highly methylated in the A549 lung cancer cell line, the CpG islands of the MAGEA3 and MAGEB2 genes were hypomethylated in A549 cells relative to normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells, and the promoter of the TATA binding protein (TBP) gene was unmethylated in both cell types.

FIG. 3. Schematic diagram of the MIRA. The MIRA was developed as a GST pull-down method in which bacterially expressed and solid-phase-bound recombinant MBD2b protein is incubated with sonicated total genomic DNA. After washing of the beads with high-salt buffer and elution of bound DNA, a gene-specific PCR reaction is performed on the isolated fragments to detect the recovered CpG islands.

FIG. 4. DNA methylation analysis by MIRA-assisted microarrays. DNA samples obtained from different cell types or tissues (for example normal and cancer tissue) are fragmented by MseI digestion followed by ligation of linkers. The methylated DNA fraction is isolated using the MIRA procedure. Input and MIRA-enriched fractions are labeled with different dyes, mixed, and hybridized to the slides and the relative enrichment factors between different cell types and tissues are determined. For simplicity, MIRA-enriched DNA from normal and tumor cells can be mixed and hybridized directly.

FIG. 5. Characteristics of genome-wide DNA methylation analysis techniques.

FIG. 6. Methylation of CpG islands in lung squamous cell carcinomas. The light gray bars indicate methylation of individual CpG islands across a series of five stage-I squamous cell carcinomas. The CpG islands methylated in all five tumors are marked by arrows.

FIG. 7. Verification of DNA methylation markers in normal lung tissue and matching squamous cell carcinoma samples. Methylation differences between squamous cell carcinomas (T) and matching normal tissues (N) were detected by COBRA assays of the indicated gene targets. “−” refers to control digestion with no BstUI, “+”, BstUI-digested samples. Digestion by BstUI indicates methylation of the sequence tested. The same stage-I tumors as in FIG. 6 were analyzed. See Table 2 for chromosomal location of the CpG islands.

FIG. 8. Absence of methylation of squamous cell carcinoma marker genes in normal blood and lung DNA. DNA was isolated from pooled leukocytes of normal healthy individuals (top panel). DNA from non-cancerous lung was pooled from two patients who underwent lung surgery for necrotizing granulomatous infection (bottom panel). PCR was performed on sodium bisulfite-treated DNA and the methylation status of the individual CpG islands was analyzed by COBRA assay using BstUI digestion. Digestion by BstUI indicates methylation of the sequence tested. The positive control (+Ctrl) is the PAX6 CpG island from tumor sample SCC2.

FIG. 9. Verification of DNA methylation markers in normal lung tissue and matching adenocarcinoma samples. Methylation differences between adenocarcinomas (T) and matching normal pairs (N) were detected by COBRA assays of the indicated gene targets. “−” refers to control digestion with no BstUI, “+”, BstUI-digested samples. Digestion by BstUI indicates methylation of the sequence tested. The indicated CpG islands were analyzed (see Table 4 for chromosomal location of the CpG islands).

FIG. 10. Verification of the CHAD DNA methylation marker in normal lung tissue and matching adenocarcinoma samples. Methylation differences between adenocarcinomas (T) and matching normal pairs (N) were detected by COBRA assays of the indicated gene targets. “−” refers to control digestion with no BstUI, “+”, BstUI-digested samples. Digestion by BstUI indicates methylation of the sequence tested. The CHAD CpG island was analyzed (see Table 4 for chromosomal location of the CpG island).

FIG. 11. Absence of methylation of adenocarcinoma marker genes in normal blood and lung DNA. DNA was isolated from pooled leukocytes of normal healthy individuals (left part of gel). DNA from non-cancerous lung was pooled from two patients who underwent lung surgery for necrotizing granulomatous infection (right part of gel). PCR was performed on sodium bisulfite-treated DNA and the methylation status of the individual CpG islands was analyzed by COBRA assay using BstUI digestion. Digestion by BstUI indicates methylation of the sequence tested.

FIG. 12. Examples of hypomethylation of SINE elements on chromosome 8. The low resolution methylation profile of the short arm of chromosome 8 is shown at the top. Selected tumor-specifically hypomethylated sequences are shown in the middle at high resolution. The blue bars indicated SINE elements. At the bottom, intra-SINE element hypomethylation in the tumor was confirmed by bisulfite-based COBRA assays. After digestion with BstUI after sodium bisulfite-treatment and locus-specific PCR, only the methylated DNA will be cut. Reduced BstUI cleavage indicates hypomethylation in the tumor.

FIG. 13. Hypomethylation of the subtelomeric region of chromosome 8. This region is rich in repetitive DNA elements. The lower scan shows that the sequences between 0.20 and 0.35 Mb are substantially undermethylated in the tumor.

FIG. 14. Hypomethylation of a CpG-rich sequence in an exon of the C8orf72 gene. The methylation profiles are shown at different levels of resolution. Bisulfite sequencing was used to verify the methylation differences between normal tissue and tumor for segments A and B of the hypomethylated region. The nearest LINE or SINE element is >5 kb away from the hypomethylated target.

FIG. 15. Promoter hypermethylation and intragenic SINE hypomethylation in the UNC5D gene. (A) This gene on chromosome 8 shows hypermethylation of the promoter-associated CpG island (blue) and hypomethylation of multiple intragenic SINE elements (red). (B) Bisulfite sequencing confirms the methylation status of the promoter and its proximal SINE element. The purple bars indicate the regions analyzed by bisulfite sequencing. Black boxes indicate exons, and the arrow shows the transcription start site.

FIG. 16. Hypomethylation of LINE and HERV sequences in lung SCCs. Methylation of LINE elements was analyzed by bisulfite conversion of DNA followed by PCR with consensus primers for the LINE1 promoter and HERV sequences. The PCR products were cleaved with HinfI, which cleaves only methylated DNA after bisulfite conversion. The percentage of methylation was determined after scanning of the gels and quantitation of the uncut (unmethylated) fragment relative to the total signal. LINE1 sequences were substantially hypomethylated, whereas HERV sequences showed only a small degree of hypomethylation in SCC tumors.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

One aspect of the present invention relates to the identification of novel DNA biomarkers and the use of the aberrant methylation patterns of the biomarkers to diagnose a disease or a condition (e.g., a cancer) associated therewith.

The DNA biomarkers according to the present invention are fragments of a polynucleotide (e.g., regions of genome polynucleotide or DNA) which likely contain CpG island(s), or fragments which are more susceptible to methylation or demethylation than other regions of genome DNA. The term “CpG islands” is a region of genome DNA which shows higher frequency of 5′-CG-3′ (CpG) dinucleotides than other regions of genome DNA. Methylation of DNA at CpG dinucleotides, in particularly, the addition of a methyl group to position 5 of the cytosine ring at CpG dinucleotides, is one of the epigenetic modifications in mammalian cells. CpG islands often harbor the promoters of genes and play a pivotal role in the control of gene expression. In normal tissues CpG islands are usually unmethylated, but a subset of islands becomes methylated during the development of a disease (e.g., tumor development). It is been reported that changes in DNA methylation patterns occur in a developmental stage and tissue specific manner and often accompany tumor development, most notably in the form of CpG island hypermethylation. During tumorigenesis, both alleles of a tumor suppressor gene need to be inactivated by genomic changes such as chromosomal deletions or loss-of-function mutations in the coding region of a gene. As an alternative mechanism, transcriptional silencing by hypermethylation of CpG islands spanning the promoter regions of tumor suppressor genes is a common and important process in carcinogenesis. Since hypermethylation generally leads to inactivation of gene expression, this epigenetic alteration is considered to be a key mechanism for long-term silencing of tumor suppressor genes. The importance of promoter methylation in functional inactivation of lung cancer suppressor genes is becoming increasingly recognized. It is estimated that between 0.5% and 3% of all genes carrying CpG islands may be silenced by DNA methylation in lung cancer (Costello et al., 2000). A schematic illustration of commonly observed DNA methylation differences between tumor cells and normal cells is depicted in FIG. 1.

It is contemplated that the DNA markers for hypermethylation according to the present invention have the following criteria. First, the marker would preferably be unmethylated in normal sample (e.g., normal or control tissue without disease, or normal or control body fluid, blood, serum, urine, sputum), most importantly in the healthy tissue the tumor originates from and/or in healthy blood, serum, urine, sputum or other body fluid. Second, the marker should preferably be heavily methylated in a large fraction of the tumors, preferably at a methylation frequency of ≧about 50% or ≧about 60%, more preferably ≧about 70%, ≧about 75%, ≧about 80%, ≧about 85%, ≧about 90%, ≧about 95%, or about 100%. Third, markers that can preferably differentiate between different subtypes or tumor entities, or are of prognostic significance, would be of great value. Specific DNA methylation patterns may distinguish tumors with low and high metastatic potential making it possible to apply optimal treatment regimens early. In additional, methylation of certain DNA repair or damage response genes may be predictive of a positive therapeutic response.

The diseases or conditions associated with aberrant methylation (hypermethylation or hypomethylation) of DNA biomarkers include a wide variety of indications such as hematological disorders and cancers that are associated with hypermethylation, as well as for diagnosis and/or treatment of diseases or conditions associated with hypomethylation (also recognized, e.g., as a cause of oncogenesis; see, e.g., Das and Singal (2004)).

Examples of hematologic disorders include abnormal growth of blood cells which can lead to dysplastic changes in blood cells and hematological malignancies such as various leukemias. Examples of hematological disorders include but are not limited to acute myeloid leukemia, acute promyelocytic leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, chronic myelogenous leukemia, the myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS), thalassemia, and sickle cell anemia.

Examples of cancers include, but are not limited to, breast cancer, skin cancer, bone cancer, prostate cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, brain cancer, cancer of the larynx, gallbladder, pancreas, rectum, parathyroid, thyroid, adrenal, neural tissue, head and neck, colon, stomach, bronchi, and kidneys, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma of both ulcerating and papillary type, metastatic skin carcinoma, osteo sarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, veticulum cell sarcoma, myeloma, giant cell tumor, small-cell lung tumor, gallstones, islet cell tumor, primary brain tumor, acute and chronic lymphocytic and granulocytic tumors, hairy-cell tumor, adenoma, hyperplasia, medullary carcinoma, pheochromocytoma, mucosal neuromas, intestinal ganglloneuromas, hyperplastic corneal nerve tumor, marfanoid habitus tumor, Wilm's tumor, seminoma, ovarian tumor, leiomyomater tumor, cervical dysplasia and in situ carcinoma, neuroblastoma, retinoblastoma, soft tissue sarcoma, malignant carcinoid, topical skin lesion, mycosis fungoide, rhabdomyosarcoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, osteogenic and other sarcoma, malignant hypercalcemia, renal cell tumor, polycythemia vera, adenocarcinoma, glioblastoma multiforma, leukemias, lymphomas, malignant melanomas, epidermoid carcinomas, and other carcinomas and sarcomas. In one embodiment of the present invention, a disease or condition is a lung cancer. In a preferred embodiment, the lung cancer is squamous cell carcinoma (e.g., Stage I squamous cell carcinoma). In another preferred embodiment, the lung cancer is adenocarcinoma.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a test sample is an organ, a fragment of organ, a tissue, a fragment of a tissue, body fluid, blood, serum, urine, sputum, which may or may not have a condition or a disease. The test sample is subject to diagnosing methods according to the present invention to determine the methylation level of at least one DNA marker from the test sample in comparison to that of a normal or standard sample.

In another embodiment of the present invention, the DNA markers which are susceptible to aberrant methylation and associated with lung cancer include those disclosed in Tables 2 and 4. Further, examples of the DNA markers include BARHL2, EVX2, IRX2, MEIS1, MSX1, NR2E1, OC2, OSR1, OTX1, PAX6, TFAP2A, ZNF577, CHAD, DLX4, GRIK2, KNCG3, NR2E1, OSR1, OTX1, OTX2, PROX1, RUNX1, and VAX1. For another example, DNA biomarkers and their aberrant methylation including NR2E1, OSR1, and OTX1 are associated with both squamous cell carcinoma and/or adenocarcinoma, preferably, at frequency of over 95% of the both tumors (e.g., 100% of both tumors).

In another preferred embodiment, DNA markers associated with squamous cell carcinomas are one or more genes selected in Table 2, and preferably, selected from the group consisting of BARHL2, EVX2, IRX2, MEIS1, MSX1, NR2E1, OC2, OSR1, OTX1, PAX6, TFAP2A, and ZNF577. In another preferred embodiment, the DNA markers and their methylation occur at a frequency of over about 70%, preferably about 80-100%, of squamous cell carcinomas.

In another preferred embodiment, DNA markers associated with adenocarcinomas one or more genes selected in Table 4, and preferably, selected from the group consisting of CHAD, DLX4, GRIK2, KNCG3, NR2E1, OSR1, OTX1, OTX2, PROX1, RUNX1, and VAX1. In another preferred embodiment, the DNA markers and their methylation occur at frequency of over about 70%, preferably about 80%, of adenocarcinomas.

There are a number of methods that can be employed to determine, identify, and characterize methylation or aberrant methylation of a region/fragment of DNA or a region/fragment of genome DNA (e.g., CpG island-containing region/fragment) in the development of a disease (e.g., tumorigenesis) and thus diagnose the onset, presence or status of the disease.

In another embodiment, a methylation detection technique is based on restriction endonuclease cleavage. These techniques require the presence of methylated cytosine residues within the recognition sequence that affect the cleavage activity of restriction endonucleases (e.g., HpaII, HhaI) (Singer et al. (1979)). Southern blot hybridization and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques can be used with along with this approach.

In another embodiment, a methylation detection technique is based on the differential sensitivity of cytosine and 5-methylcytosine towards chemical modification (e.g., bisulfite dependent modification) and/or cleavage. This methodology allows single base resolution. In one example, hydrazine modification, as developed for Maxam-Gilbert chemical DNA sequencing, has been used to distinguish cytosines from methylcytosines with which it does not react (Pfeifer et al., 1989). The principle of bisulfite genomic sequencing is that methylated and unmethylated cytosine residues react in a different manner with sodium bisulfite (Clark et al. 1994). After bisulfite treatment of genomic DNA, the unmethylated cytosines are converted to uracils by hydrolytic deamination, while methylated cytosine residues can hardly react with sodium bisulfite and remain intact. After this chemical treatment resulting in cytosine deamination, the region of interest must be PCR amplified with primers complementary to the deaminated uracil-containing sequence, and in most cases the PCR products are cloned and then sequenced.

In another embodiment, a bisulfite dependent methylation assay is known as a combined bisulfite-restriction analysis (COBRA assay) whereas PCR products obtained from bisulfite-treated DNA can also be analyzed by using restriction enzymes that recognize sequences containing 5′CG, such as TaqI (5′TCGA) or BstUI (5′CGCG) such that methylated and unmethylated DNA can be distinguished (Xiong and Laird, 1997).

In another embodiment, another bisulfite dependent methylation assay is known as methylation-specific PCR assay (MSP) (Herman et al. 1996). Sodium bisulfite treated genomic DNA serves as the template for a subsequent PCR reaction. Specific sets of PCR primers are designed in such a way to discriminate between bisulfite modified and unmodified template DNA and between unmethylated (deaminated) and methylated (non-deaminated) cytosines at CpG sites.

In another embodiment, a methylation detection technique is based on the ability of the MBD domain of the MeCP2 protein to selectively bind to methylated DNA sequences (Frafa et al., 2003). The bacterially expressed and purified His-tagged methyl-CpG-binding domain is immobilized to a solid matrix and used for preparative column chromatography to isolate highly methylated DNA sequences. Restriction endonuclease-digested genomic DNA is loaded onto the affinity column and methylated-CpG island-enriched fractions are eluted by a linear gradient of sodium chloride. PCR or Southern hybridization techniques are used to detect specific sequences in these fractions.

In another embodiment, a methylation detection technique is known as methyl-CpG island recovery assay (MIRA) which is based on the fact that the MBD2b protein can specifically recognize methylated-CpG dinucleotides and this interaction is enhanced by the MBD3L1 protein. Matrix-assisted binding and simple PCR assays are used to detect methylated DNA sequences in the recovered fraction. MIRA does not depend on the use of sodium bisulfite but has similar sensitivity and specificity as bisulfite-based approaches (Rauch and Pfeifer, 2005).

An outline of MIRA is shown in FIG. 2 and a schematic diagram of the MIRA procedure is shown in FIG. 3. Briefly, Methyl-CpG binding domain (MBD) proteins, such as MBD2, have the capacity to bind specifically to methylated DNA sequences. Among the MBD proteins, MBD2b, the short protein isoform translated from the MBD2 mRNA, has been shown to have strong affinity for methylated DNA and the highest capacity to discriminate between methylated and unmethylated DNA, in a relatively sequence-independent manner. MBD2b forms a heterodimer with a related protein, MBD3L1, which further increases the affinity of MBD2b for methylated DNA. In the MIRA procedure, sonicated or restriction-cut genomic DNA isolated from different cells or tissues is incubated with the complex of GST-MBD2b and His-MBD3L1 bound to glutathione-agarose. These two recombinant proteins can easily be expressed in E. coli. Specifically bound DNA is eluted from the matrix and gene-specific PCR reactions can be performed to detect CpG island methylation. Methylation can be detected using 1 ng of DNA or 3,000 cells. MIRA has a high specificity for enriching the methylated DNA and unmethylated DNA molecules stay in the supernatant.

The efficiency of the MIRA pulldown depends on CpG density and the approach seems to be ideally suited for pulling down methylated CpG islands. In order to test how many methylated CpGs are required for efficient pull-down by MIRA, unmethylated DNA fragments derived from the human TBP gene promoter were used. The DNA was methylated with different prokaryotic DNA methylases to introduce different numbers of methylated CpGs. A MIRA assay was performed and the TBP promoter was amplified using quantitative real-time PCR. A fragment containing 13 methylated CpGs was amplified most efficiently, followed by one with two methylation sites. However, fragments containing zero or only one methylated CpG (such sequences may be found in areas flanking CpG islands) were amplified only at much higher PCR cycle numbers.

The MIRA assay has a high specificity to detect the methylated CpG island-containing fraction/region/fragment of the genome DNA. The MIRA procedure has been applied to isolate the methylated CpG island fraction from a tumor cell line. For example, DNA from the lung cancer cell line A549 was digested with MseI (5′-TTAA), which cuts outside of CpG islands. Linkers were ligated to the MseI digested DNA and enrichment of the methylated fraction was done by MIRA as described (Rauch & Pfeifer, 2005). The samples were then PCR-amplified using linker primers and PCR products were cloned into a plasmid vector. Individual plasmids were sequenced and the identity of the amplified fragments was assessed using BLAST searches. Of 54 sequenced plasmids, 24 contained sequences matching to CpG islands (defined as >60% G+C content; CpG frequency observed/expected >0.7; minimum length 200 bp) in Genbank. This data confirmed the specificity of the MIRA assay. The specificity was further confirmed by sodium bisulfite sequencing.

Methods have been developed to analyze DNA methylation patterns on a genome-wide scale. These methods include, for example, 1) restriction landmark genomic scanning, 2) methylation-sensitive representational difference analysis, 3) arbitrarily-primed PCR, 4) differential methylation hybridization in combination with a CpG island microarray (methods 1-4 use methylationsensitive restriction, 5) expression microarrays to look for genes reactivated by treatment with DNA methylation inhibitors, e.g. 5-aza-deoxycytidine, 6) genomic tiling and BAC microarrays, 7) immunoprecipitation using antibody against 5-methylcytosine combined with microarrays, 8) chromatin immunoprecipitation with antibodies against methyl-CpG binding proteins, 9) the use of the methylation-dependent restriction enzyme McrBC to cleave methylated DNA, and 10) direct sequencing of bisulfite-converted genomes (See Pfeifer at el., 2007, for review).

In a preferred embodiment, MIRA-assisted microarray analysis is employed to determine DNA methylation patterns or diagnose a disease associated with aberrant methylation of DNA biomarkers or CpG containing regions/fragments (Rauch et al., 2006). This analysis is highly specific, sensitive (100 ng or less of genomic DNA are required), and relatively simple. Briefly, MIRA-enriched DNA and input DNA from control and tumor tissue can be labeled with tow different dyes (e.g., Cy3 and Cy5 dyes) respectively, and hybridized to commercially available CpG island or promoter arrays (see FIG. 4 for an outline of this approach). In one example, the methylated DNA fractions from the lung cancer cell line A549 and from normal human bronchial epithelial cells (NHBE) and applied them to these CpG island arrays were isolated (Rauch et al., 2006). Using the data obtained from such arrays, a list of genes was compiled that show hypermethylation in A549 cells relative to NHBE cells. Cancer cell line-specific methylation and lack of methylation in normal human bronchial epithelial cells was confirmed for the targets identified by the microarrays. Importantly, among the 25 targets randomly picked and verified from the list of the top 50 methylation targets with a fold difference factor of >2.0, no false positive targets were identified. Thus the false positive discovery rate of MIRA-assisted microarrays is low (<4%). Selective genome-wide DNA methylation analysis techniques are compared in FIG. 5.

Various types of microarrays can be used in analyzing DNA methylation patterns on a genome-wide scale. For example, MIRA is compatible with Affymetrix promoter arrays as well as with Agilent and NimbleGen arrays. On the NimbleGen platform, DNA methylation was measured across the sequences analyzed by the ENCODE project. In this analysis, MIRA-enriched DNA from a lymphoblastoid cell line was compared to input DNA. This process is basically analogous to chromatin immunoprecipitation applied to genome tiling arrays and displays the enrichment of methylated CpGs within genomic sequences at a resolution of ˜100 bp. The use of Agilent CpG island arrays has shown a genome-wide characterization of tumor-associated CpG island methylation (Rauch et al., 2007).

Another aspect of the present invention relates to the use of the demethylation/hypomethylation patterns of a DNA biomarker to diagnose a disease or a condition (e.g., a cancer) associated therewith. For example, the 3′ end of the C8orf72 gene is identified having CpG island sequences which is specifically demethylated in cancer cells or tissues. The detection of demethylation of the 3′ end of the C8orf72 gene in a test sample indicates that the sample is a cancerous sample (Rauch et al, 2008).

EXAMPLES Example 1 DNA Methylation Analysis of Lung Cancer

To analyze tumor-associated DNA methylation changes, stage-I lung squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) or adenocarcinomas (AC) are compared to normal matched lung tissues.

Lung squamous cell carcinoma samples and matching normal tissues removed with surgery were obtained from the frozen tumor bank of the City of Hope National Medical Center (Duarte, Calif.). Genomic DNA was purified from tissues by a standard procedure using phenol chloroform extraction and ethanol precipitation.

DNA obtained from normal tissues and from the lung cancer tissues was digested with MseI (5′-TTAA), which produces small (−200-300 bp) fragments and generally cuts outside of CpG islands. Linkers (upper strand 5′-AGCAACTGTGCTATCCGAGGGAT-3′ and lower strand 3′-TAATCCCTCGGA-5′) were ligated to the MseI digested DNA and enrichment of the methylated fraction was done by MIRA as described (Rauch, Wang et al. 2007). Human CpG island microarrays, which contain 237,000 oligonucleotide probes covering 27,800 CpG islands, were purchased from Agilent Technologies. Two micrograms each of the amplicons from MIRA-enriched tumor DNA and normal control samples were labeled with BioPrime Array CGH Genomic Labeling kit (Invitrogen; Carlsbad, Calif.) with either Cy5-dCTP (tumor) or Cy3-dCTP (control) in 87.5 μA reactions (both Cy3- and Cy5-dCTP were obtained from GE Healthcare). The purified labeled samples were then mixed and microarray hybridization was performed according to the Agilent ChIP-on-chip protocol (v.9.0). The hybridized arrays were scanned on an Axon 4000B microarray scanner and the images were analyzed with Axon GenePix software v.5.1. Image and data analysis were done as described (Rauch, Li et al. 2006). Individual CpG islands were considered methylation-positive when at least two adjacent probes within the CpG island scored a fold-difference factor of >3.0 when comparing tumor and normal tissue DNA.

As a result, five stage-I squamous cell carcinomas and eight stage-I adenocarcinomas were initially analyzed on these arrays. The number of methylated CpG islands ranged from 216 to 744 in the five individual squamous cell tumors (Table 1). For adenocarcinomas, between 219 and 908 CpG islands were methylated per tumor (Table 1).

TABLE 1 Number of methylated CpG islands in stage-I lung AC and SCC samples Sample Methylated CpG Islands AC1 408 AC2 219 AC3 315 AC4 319 AC5 260 AC6 355 AC7 447 AC8 908 SCC1 245 SCC2 633 SCC3 744 SCC4 216 SCC5 608

Example 2 Squamous Cell Carcinomas Associated DNA Biomarkers

Using MIRA-assisted microarray analysis in Example 1, 59 CpG islands were identified that were methylated in five out of five SCC tumors (FIG. 6 showing exemplary markers, Table 2 showing a set of markers). A large fraction of the methylated CpG islands were mapped to homeobox genes. The CpG island sequences and flanking 1 kb regions of the 15 most frequently methylated genes in SCC were analyzed for potential consensus DNA sequences but we could not identify any significant consensus motifs.

TABLE 2 List of hypermethylated CpG islands as markers for stage I lung squamous cell carcinoma* Location in hg18 Position relative to known genes Chr Start End Upstream Promoter Intragenic Downstream chr1 47682300 47683607 FOXD2 chr1 63554983 63563059 FOXD3 chr1† 90955098 90955445 BARHL2 chr1 90963078 90965392 BARHL2 chr1 110411789 110414826 ALX3 chr1 119350668 119352843 chr2† 19419271 19421884 OSR1 chr2 20733488 20734761 GDF7 chr2 24251150 24251698 FLJ30851 chr2† 63134539 63134851 OTX1 EHBP1 chr2† 66525936 66527140 MEIS1 chr2 66662073 66662908 MEIS1 chr2 80383189 80384357 LRRTM1 chr2† 176652334 176656692 HOXD13 EVX2 chr2 176672309 176673755 HOXD11 HOXD12 HOXD13 chr2 176689012 176689669 HOXD10 HOXD11 chr2 176690354 176690648 HOXD9 HOXD10 HOXD11 chr2 176694671 176696537 HOXD8 HOXD9 HOXD10 chr2 176737660 176738187 HOXD3 chr3 148591199 148594390 ZIC4 chr4 1386292 1391730 FLJ34443 chr4† 4910534 4911092 MSX1 chr4 174686622 174688044 HAND2 chr5† 2791954 2794237 IRX2 chr5 3647468 3656054 IRX1 chr5 54554812 54555385 UNG2 chr5 72629904 72631564 chr5 140790679 140792801 PCDHGA12 chr6 10489545 10490340 chr6† 10498025 10498551 TFAP2A chr6 10530308 10530634 TFAP2A MGC40222 chr6 101953488 101953856 GRIK2 chr6† 108592365 108597232 NR2E1 chr7† 27170441 27172987 HOXA7 HOXA9 HOXA10 chr7 27219207 27220360 chr7 121743780 121744577 CADPS2 chr7 153214251 153216599 DPP6 chr7 154857319 154860615 chr8 100054910 100056159 chr9 959530 963276 DMRT3 DMRT1 chr9 125813068 125820774 LHX2 chr10 94170296 94170734 chr10 118882152 118882629 VAX1 chr11† 31783382 31783583 PAX6 chr12 52726910 52727810 HOXC4 HOXC4 chr12 60871036 60872535 FAM19A2 chr13 94152191 94153185 SOX21 chr14 36205265 36206099 PAX9 chr14 56344361 56346593 OTX2 chr14 60045486 60047933 SIX6 chr15 77511155 77512698 KIAA1024 chr15 87750378 87752134 chr15 87753276 87754065 chr18 53170706 53172603 ST8SIA3 chr18† 53254153 53259851 OC2 chr19 57082653 57083180 ZNF577 chr20 54012011 54014085 CBLN4 chr21 36990064 36995761 SIM2 chrX 136459743 136460985 *These CpG islands were methylated in 5 of 5 stage I SCCs according to the Agilent CpG island microarray data. †Methylation status of these CpG islands was verified by COBRA assays. Chromosome coordinates are according to the UC Santa Cruz Genome Browser (http://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hgGateway) March 2006 assembly (hg18).

Since these 59 loci (e.g., chromosome 18, chr18: 53254153-53259851, marker OC2) had excellent potential to be specific and sensitive methylation biomarkers for SCC, twelve of these markers (BARHL2, EVX2, IRX2, MEIS1, MSX1, NR2E1, OC2, OSR1, OTX1, PAX6, TFAP2A, and ZNF577) were analyzed in a larger series of 20 SCCs by bisulfite-based COBRA assays (FIG. 7). The bisulfite-based COBRA assay is considered the gold standard for testing the methylation status of CpG islands and has a very low rate of false positives. The COBRA assays were done according to the method of Xiong and Laird (Xiong and Laird 1997) using digestion with BstUI for analysis of single copy genes. DNA was treated and purified with the EpiTect bisulfite kit (Qiagen, Valencia).

The methylation frequency of the individual markers ranged from 14/20 (70%) to 20/20 (=100%) of the tumors (Table 3) (e.g., 14/20 (70%) for OC2, 16/20 (80%) for EVX2, 17/20 (85%) for BARHL2, PAX6, or MEIS1, 18/20 (90%) for TFAP2A or ZNF577, 19/20 (90%) for MSX1 or IRX2, and 20/20 (95%) for OTX1, OSR1, or NR2E1). The OTX1, OSR1 and NR2E1 associated CpG islands were methylated in all SCC tumors tested (=100%). Several of these SCC markers were highly specific for tumor-associated methylation, i.e. no methylation was observed in tumor-adjacent normal lung tissue. These included the CpG islands of the OTX1, BARHL2, MEIS1, PAX6, IRX2, OC2, TFAP2A, and EVX2 genes (FIG. 7). None of these CpG islands was methylated in blood DNA from healthy individuals or in non-cancerous lung DNA (FIG. 8). Methylation of the OTX1, IRX2, OC2, and VX2 genes has not yet been reported in human cancers.

TABLE 3 Frequency of methylation of 12 DNA methylation biomarkers in 20 lung squamous cell carcinomas SCC# Stage MSX1 OTX1 BARHL2 PAX6 MEIS1 OC2 TFAP2A OSR1 ZNF577 EVX2 IRX2 NR2E1 1 I  +* + + + + + + + + + + + 2 I + + + + + + + + + + + + 3 I + + + + + + + + + + + + 4 I + + + + + + − + + + + + 5 I + + + + + + + + + + + + 6 I + + + + + + + + + + + + 7 I + + + + + + + + + + + + 8 I + + − − + − + + + + + + 9 I + + + + + + + + + + + + 10 I + + + + + − + + + + + + 11 I + + + + + + + + + + + + 12 II + + + + − + + + + + + + 13 II + + + − + + + + − − + + 14 II − + − − − − + + + − − + 15 II + + + + + − + + + + + + 16 II + + + + − − − + + − + + 17 III + + + + + + + + + + + + 18 III + + − + + + + + − − + + 19 III + + + + + + + + + + + + 20 III + + + + + − + + + + + + Frequency 19/20 20/20 17/20 17/20 17/20 14/20 18/20 20/20 18/20 16/20 19/20 20/20 *plus sign, methylated CpG island; minus sign, unmethylated CpG island as determined by COBRA assay.

Example 3 Adenocarcinomas Associated DNA Biomarkers

Using MIRA-assisted microarray analysis of Example 1, 52 CpG islands (e.g., chromosome 14, chr14: 56344361-56346593, marker OTX2) were identified that were methylated in at least 6 out of 8 adenocarcinomas (Table 4). Several of these adenocarcinoma methylation markers (CHAD, DLX4, GRIK2, KCNG3, NR2E1, OSR1, OTX1, OTX2, PROX1, RUNX1, and VAX1) were chosen for verification by bisulfite-based COBRA assays. These selected adenocarcinoma markers were methylated in more than 80% of the ACs (FIG. 9). The CHAD gene was methylated in 8 of 11 tumors tested (FIG. 10). None of these CpG islands was methylated in blood DNA from healthy individuals or in non-cancerous lung DNA (FIG. 11).

TABLE 4 Methylation Markers for Lung Adenocarcinoma # Positive tumors (Total Positive CGI# 8) Gene Region chr1: 110411789-110414826 8 ALX3 Promoter CGI chr2: 131513833-131514558 6 ARHGEF4 Exon CGI chr1: 90963078-90965392 6 BARHL2 Upstream CGI chr17: 45900570-45901899 7 CHAD* Promoter CGI chr17: 45403953-45405615 6 DLX4 Alternative promoter CGI chr2: 72996564-73001768 6 EMX1 Promoter CGI chr19: 60283718-60285792 6 EPS8L1 Alternative promoter CGI chr3: 129688190-129694969 6 GATA2 Promoter CGI chr6: 101953487-101953856 6 GRIK2* Promoter CGI chr3: 142998750-142999334 6 GRK7 intron CGI chr2: 176672309-176673755 6 HOXD12 Coding region chr2: 176854920-176855448 6 HOXD3 1st intron chr5: 3647467-3656054 6 IRX1 Promoter and gene chr3: 42702088-42702920 6 KBTBD5 Promoter CGI chr2: 42573289-42575670 6 KCNG3* Promoter CGI chr1: 196157102-196157447 7 LHX9 Exon 4 chr13: 34947570-34948159 7 MAB21L1 Coding region chr14: 36122288-36122589 7 NKX2-8 Upstream CGI chr6: 108592364-108597232 6 NR2E1* Promoter CGI chr2: 19419271-19421884 8 OSR1* Promoter CGI chr2: 63134539-63134851 7 OTX1* Exon 4 chr2: 63127980-63132934 6 OTX1 Promoter CGI chr2: 63136019-63136626 6 OTX1 Last exon chr14: 56344360-56346593 8 OTX2* 1st intron chr14: 36205264-36206099 7 PAX9 Exon 3 chr4: 30330303-30333940 7 PCDH17 Promoter CGI chr5: 134390991-134393045 8 PITX1 Last exon chr4: 111758678-111758932 6 PITX2 Last exon chr1: 212225350-212225703 6 PROX1* Upstream CGI chr5: 40715259-40717838 6 PTGER4 Promoter CGI chr21: 35320830-35321129 7 RUNX1* 1st intron chr14: 60178707-60179539 6 SIX1 Down stream CGI chr2: 45085286-45086054 6 SIX2 Promoter CGI chr4: 48180120-48181230 6 SLC10A4 Promoter CGI chr18: 53170705-53172603 6 ST8SIA3 Promoter CGI chr17: 56827842-56838048 6 TBX2 Promoter CGI chr6: 10518095-10518676 6 TFAP2A Exon CGI chr20: 54633686-54640196 7 TFAP2C Promoter CGI chr10: 118885953-118888027 6 VAX1* Promoter CGI chr19: 63407032-63407845 6 ZNF274 intron CGI chr19: 63559209-63560680 6 ZNF497 Last exon chr19: 57082653-57083180 7 ZNF577 Promoter CGI CpG islands with no known gene association chr10: 22804714-22807056 6 chr10 CGI chr10: 119484483-119484981 6 chr10 CGI chr13: 49599000-49600287 7 chr13 CGI chr13: 94152190-94153185 7 chr13 CGI chr2: 45,013,398-45,013,616 6 chr2 CGI chr4: 24,699,205-24,699,608 7 chr4 CGI chr5: 54554811-54555385 7 chr5 CGI chr6: 10498024-10498551 7 chr6 CGI chr7: 35267676-35268256 7 chr6 CGI chr6: 30203152-30203589 6 chr6 CGI #All genome locations are for the human genome build 18 (March 2006) (UC Santa Cruz Genome Browser). *Genes with COBRA verification data.

Example 4 DNA Biomarkers for Lung Cancers

A comprehensive analysis of CpG islands in human lung cancer was conducted using MIRA-assisted microarrays. The methylation levels at over 27,000 CpG islands were directly measured and between approximately 200 and 900 of these islands were found to be methylated in individual lung SCC and AC samples. These numbers are compatible with earlier estimates derived from analysis of only a subset of CpG islands methylated in cancer (Costello, Fruhwald et al. 2000). It is clear that not all of these genes can be tumor suppressor genes. For example, consistent with earlier observations, a substantial subset of the methylated genes (20-40% depending on the tumor) was homeobox genes (Rauch, Wang et al. 2007). Homeobox gene associated CpG islands were among the DNA methylation markers identified. The CpG islands of the OTX1, BARHL2, MEIS1, PAX6, IRX2, OC2, TFAP2A, and EVX2 genes were tumor-specifically methylated with no detectable methylation seen in normal lung tissue or in blood DNA. Methylation of these genes (in particular, OTX1, IRX2, OC2 and EVX2), except for TFAP2A in breast cancer (Douglas, Akiyama et al. 2004), has not yet been reported in human cancers. Also, importantly, the methylation frequency of these markers (70 to 100% of the tumors were methylated) is much higher than methylation frequencies of other lung cancer DNA methylation markers reported previously. For example, OTX1 was tumor specifically methylated in 20/20 (=100%) of the tumors, so were NR2E1 and OSR1. These markers present candidates for clinical or diagnostic applications aimed at either detection of early disease in body fluids such as blood or sputum or at disease management and follow-up by using molecular diagnostic testing or methods provided in the instant application.

For adenocarcinomas, several DNA markers have been identified including CHAD, DLX4, GRIK2, KCNG3, NR2E1, OSR1, OTX1, OTX2, PROX1, RUNX1, and VAX1. Methylation of these genes in lung cancer has not yet been reported. The CpG islands associated with the NR2E1, OSR1, and OTX1 genes were methylated in both adenocarcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas at a frequency of over 95%. These markers are excellent candidates for clinical or diagnostic applications aimed at either detection of early disease (e.g., lung cancer) in body fluids such as blood or sputum, or at disease management and follow-up using molecular diagnostic testing.

In sum, changes in DNA methylation patterns are an important characteristic of human cancer. In particular, hypermethylation of CpG islands is a marker of malignant progression. Methylated CpG islands are promising diagnostic markers for the early detection of cancer. In the present invention, a methylated-CpG island recovery assay (MIRA) assisted high-resolution microarray screening approach was used to find hypermethylated CpG islands in squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) and adenocarcinomas (AC) of the lung. Each tumor contained several hundred hypermethylated CpG islands. In an initial microarray screen, 59 CpG islands were methylated in 5/5 (=100%) of the SCC tumors tested and 52 CpG islands were methylated in >75% of the adenocarcinomas tested (n=8). Using sodium-bisulfite based approaches, 12 CpG islands (associated with the BARHL2, EVX2, IRX2, MEIS1, MSX1, NR2E1, OC2, OSR1, OTX1, PAX6, TFAP2A, and ZNF577 genes) were confirmed to be methylated in 70 to 100% of the squamous cell carcinomas (80-100% of the tumors were methylated for 11 of 12 markers tested, 70% for OC2; see Table 3) and 11 CpG islands (associated with the CHAD, DLX4, GRIK2, KCNG3, NR2E1, OSR1, OTX1, OTX2, PROX1, RUNX1, and VAX1 genes) were methylated in >80% of the adenocarcinomas. Many of these newly discovered methylated CpG islands make them specific biomarkers for the early detection of lung cancer.

Example 5 Hypomethylation of CpG Islands in Tumors

In addition to hypermethylation, the MIRA method in combination with CpG island and genomic tiling arrays provided information on the extent and sequence specificity of DNA hypomethylation (Rauch et al., 2008). Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) and long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs), together with human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), make up >45% of the human genome. Transposable elements are highly methylated and mostly silenced in normal cells. Although repetitive sequences are not directly represented as probes on the tiling arrays, information on the methylation status of SINE elements was obtained due to hybridization of flanking single copy DNA to adjacent probes after MseI digestion. In the MIRA technique, the highly methylated elements are captured by the MBD2b/MBD3L1 protein complex. After comparing the DNA methylation profiles of normal lung tissues and the matched SCC samples, several thousand tumor associated demethylation events of genomic regions carrying SINE elements (examples are shown FIG. 12) were detected. The methylation status of several arbitrarily chosen SINE elements was verified by bisulfite sequencing and COBRA assays. Primers for bisulfite sequencing were complementary to the flanking unique sequences, and the sequencing data reflects the methylation status of the repetitive element itself. The sequencing data confirmed the MIRA-assisted tiling array methylation profiles for SINE elements and their extensive hypomethylation in tumors. The cancer-specific hypomethylation of SINE elements was not well conserved between individual tumors; this reflects a degree of randomness for targeting individual SINE sequences for demethylation in cancer.

Next, all of the CpG islands on chromosome 8p in tumor SCC2 and its corresponding normal tissue were surveyed. As expected, >98% (159/162) of the promoter-associated CpG islands were unmethylated in normal lung. In addition, there were 78 unmethylated iatrogenic and intergenic CpGislands. Further, 159 mostly short (<0.6 kb) methylated CpG islands were found in normal lung. Sixty-four of these methylated CpG islands were intragenic, and they generally did not become hypomethylated in the tumor. However, the majority of the methylated islands (a total of 95) were located between 0 and 2 Mb away from the chromosome end, overlapping the subtelomeric region, and these were not associated with a known gene. Almost all of the methylated subtelomeric CpG islands were composed of short direct or indirect repeat sequences. Fifty-four of the 95 subtelomeric methylated islands underwent demethylation in the tumor. Their demethylation is consistent with a specific defect of repetitive DNA methylation in cancer tissue. The repeat-rich subtelomeric region of chromosome 8, even outside of CpG islands, was substantially hypomethylated in the tumor (example shown in FIG. 13). Importantly, however, nonsubtelomeric single-sequence genes and intergenic regions were not demethylated in tumors. Within 157 Mb of DNA sequence analyzed, one unique-sequence CpG-rich sequence was detected that was cancer-specifically demethylated. This hypomethylated sequence is located at the 3′ end of an uncharacterized gene, C8orf72 (FIG. 14).

The UNC5D gene is another interesting example, because cancer-specific hyper- and hypomethylation events occurred in the same gene. Its promoter was hypermethylated, whereas SINE sequences downstream in the intragenic region were all hypomethylated (FIG. 15). The UNC5D gene is frequently deleted in gastric cancer, suggesting a possible link between SINE-specific hypomethylation and chromosomal instability leading to loss of heterozygosity in this region.

To get a more complete picture of the DNA methylation changes in other repetitive sequences, the analysis was extended to LINE- and HERV-containing loci. A modified COBRA method (Yang et al. 2004) was used to explore methylation changes in LINE and HERV elements. This approach can give an estimate for the global changes in methylation status of these elements. 20 normal lung tissues and matching SCC samples were analyzed (FIG. 16). Hypomethylation of LINEs was observed in SCC samples. HERV promoter demethylation was not as pronounced as LINE demethylation but was still significant.

Another class of repeat sequences are segmental duplications that can be several kilobases in size. Chromosome 8p23 contains an area of a direct genomic duplication (30.5 kb direct repeat) that is also found on several other chromosomes. It was observed that these duplicated sequences underwent extensive demethylation in the tumor sample.

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What is claimed is:
 1. A method of diagnosing lung cancer comprising: obtaining a lung tissue test sample from a subject; measuring a methylation level of one or a combination of DNA biomarkers selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOS. 1-21 and 23-111 in the lung tissue test sample; comparing the methylation level of the one or a combination of DNA biomarkers with the methylation level of a corresponding one or combination of DNA biomarkers in a normal lung tissue sample or lung standard sample; and predicting that an increase in the methylation level of the lung tissue test sample in relation to that of the normal lung tissue sample or lung standard sample indicates that the subject is likely to have lung cancer.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the aberrant methylation is hypermethylation or hypomethylation.
 3. The method of claim 2 wherein the condition is a lung cancer.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the lung cancer is squamous cell carcinoma.
 5. The method of claim 4 wherein the one or a combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from one or more genes listed in Table 2 (SEQ ID NOS. 1-59).
 6. The method of claim 4 wherein the one or a combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from the group consisting of BARHL2 (SEQ ID NO. 3), EVX2 (SEQ ID NO. 14), IRX2 (SEQ ID NO. 24), MEIS1 (SEQ ID NO. 11), MSX1 (SEQ ID NO. 22), NR2E1 (SEQ ID NO. 33), OC2 (SEQ ID NO. 55), OSR1 (SEQ ID NO. 7), OTX1 (SEQ ID NO. 10), PAX6 (SEQ ID NO. 44), TFAP2A (SEQ ID NO. 30), and ZNF577 (SEQ ID NO. 56).
 7. The method of claim 4 wherein the lung cancer is adenocarcinoma.
 8. The method claim 7 wherein the one or combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from one or more genes listed in Table 4 (SEQ ID NOS. 60-111).
 9. The method of claim 7 wherein the one or combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from the group consisting of CHAD (SEQ ID NO. 63), DLX4 (SEQ ID NO. 64), GRIK2 (SEQ ID NO. 68), KNCG3 (SEQ ID NO. 74), NR2E1 (SEQ ID NO. 78), OSR1 (SEQ ID NO. 79), OTX1 (SEQ ID NO. 80), OTX2 (SEQ ID NO. 83), PROX1 (SEQ ID NO. 88), RUNX1 (SEQ ID NO. 90), and VAX1 (SEQ ID NO. 98).
 10. The method of claim 1 wherein the one or a combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from the group consisting of BARHL2 (SEQ ID NO. 3), EVX2 (SEQ ID NO. 14), IRX2 (SEQ ID NO. 24), MEIS1 (SEQ ID NO. 11), MSX1 (SEQ ID NO. 22), NR2E1 (SEQ ID NO. 33), OC2 (SEQ ID NO. 55), OSR1 (SEQ ID NO. 7), OTX1 (SEQ ID NO. 10), PAX6 (SEQ ID NO. 44), TFAP2A (SEQ ID NO. 30), ZNF577 (SEQ ID NO. 56), CHAD (SEQ ID NO. 63), DLX4 (SEQ ID NO. 64), GRIK2 (SEQ ID NO. 68), KNCG3 (SEQ ID NO. 74), NR2E1 (SEQ ID NO. 78), OSR1 (SEQ ID NO. 79), OTX1 (SEQ ID NO. 80), OTX2 (SEQ ID NO. 83), PROX1 (SEQ ID NO. 88), RUNX1 (SEQ ID NO. 90), and VAX1 (SEQ ID NO. 98).
 11. The method of claim 1 wherein the methylation level is measured by a methylated-CpG island recovery assay (MIRA), a combined bisulfite-restriction analysis (COBRA), or a methylation-specific PCR (MSP).
 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the methylation levels of the one or a combination of DNA biomarkers are measured by an MIRA-assisted microarray analysis.
 13. The method of claim 1 wherein the one or combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from the group consisting of OTX1 (SEQ ID NO. 10), IRX2 (SEQ ID NO. 24), OC2 (SEQ ID NO. 55), and EVX2 (SEQ ID NO. 14).
 14. The method of claim 1 wherein the increase is more than 2 fold.
 15. The method of claim 14 wherein the increase is more than 3 fold.
 16. A method of diagnosing lung cancer comprising: 1) obtaining a lung tissue test sample from a subject; 2) obtaining a genome DNA from the lung tissue test sample from the subject; 3) obtaining methylated regions from the genome DNA; 4) hybridizing the methylated regions to a DNA microarray comprising one or a combination of DNA biomarkers selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOS. 1-21 and 23-111; 5) comparing the hybridization of the methylated regions from the genome DNA with the hybridization of the corresponding methylated regions of a normal lung tissue sample or lung standard sample genome DNA; and 6) predicting that an increase in the methylated regions of the genome DNA hybridizing to the DNA biomarker relative to the methylated regions of the normal lung tissue sample or lung standard sample genome DNA hybridizing to the one or a combination of DNA biomarkers indicates that the subject is likely to have lung cancer.
 17. The method of claim 16 wherein the lung cancer is squamous cell carcinoma and the one or combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from is one or more genes listed in Table 2 (SEQ ID NOS. 1-59).
 18. The method of claim 17 wherein the one or a combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from the group consisting of BARHL2 (SEQ ID NO. 3), EVX2 (SEQ ID NO. 14), IRX2 (SEQ ID NO. 24), MEIS1 (SEQ ID NO. 11), MSX1 (SEQ ID NO. 22), NR2E1 (SEQ ID NO. 33), OC2 (SEQ ID NO. 55), OSR1 (SEQ ID NO. 7), OTX1 (SEQ ID NO. 10), PAX6 (SEQ ID NO. 44), TFAP2A (SEQ ID NO. 30), and ZNF577 (SEQ ID NO. 56).
 19. The method of claim 16 wherein the condition is adenocarcinoma and the one or combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from one or more genes listed in Table 4 (SEQ ID NOS. 60-111).
 20. The method of claim 19 wherein the one or combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from the group consisting of CHAD (SEQ ID NO. 63), DLX4 (SEQ ID NO. 64), GRIK2 (SEQ ID NO. 68), KNCG3 (SEQ ID NO. 74), NR2E1 (SEQ ID NO. 78), OSR1 (SEQ ID NO. 79), OTX1 (SEQ ID NO. 80), OTX2 (SEQ ID NO. 83), PROX1 (SEQ ID NO. 88), RUNX1 (SEQ ID NO. 90), and VAX1 (SEQ ID NO. 98).
 21. A method of diagnosing a tumor from a test sample in a subject comprising the step of: measuring the methylation level of one or a combination of DNA biomarkers from the test sample and a standard sample: wherein the fold difference between the methylation level of the test sample in relation to the methylation level of the standard sample indicates the likelihood of the test sample having the condition; and wherein the one or combination of DNA biomarkers are selected from the group consisting of OTX1 (SEQ ID NO. 10), IRX2 (SEQ ID NO. 24), OC2 (SEQ ID NO. 55), EVX2 (SEQ ID NO. 14).
 22. The method of claim 21 wherein the methylation level is measured by a methylated-CpG island recovery assay (MIRA), a combined bisulfite-restriction analysis (COBRA), or a methylation-specific PCR (MSP).
 23. A method of diagnosing a tumor from a test sample in a subject comprising the step of: measuring the methylation level of one or a combination of DNA biomarkers from the test sample and a standard sample: wherein the fold difference between the methylation level of the test sample in relation to that of the standard sample indicates the likelihood of the test sample having the condition; and wherein the DNA biomarker is the 3′ end of C8orf72 gene. 